Mongolia from 1911 to nowadays

In the early 20th century, the Manchu state quickly declined and the revolutionary ideas developed. In 1911, the Republic of China replaced the state of Manchuria.

The intellectuals and statesmen of outer Mongolia proclaimed independence of the country. The new state of outer Mongolia was a theocracy, so the religous leader, called Bogd, was also the political leader. In 1913, a delegation of representatives of outer Mongolia, led by T. Namnansuren, visited the Russian Empire in order to find a support to secure independence. They wanted outer Mongolia to be internationally recognised, but they failed.

In 1915, in Kyakhta, discussions began between outer Mongolia and the Republic of China. Moscow and Beijing refuted to recognise the independence of outer Mongolia, and granted only an autonomous status.

In 1919, the Republican government of China abolished the autonomy and sent troops to outer Mongolia. The aim was to secure the Chinese interests in Mongolia, in the cas where Russians, muddled since 1917, wanted to extend there. The Mongolian independentist leaders resisted in many areas of the country.

In 1921, after revolutionary changes, Mongolia found its independence back and formed a theocratic state. This time, the government restricted the powers of the 8th Bogd. When the Bogd died in 1924, the revolutionary leaders transformed Mongolia in a republic and adoped the first constitution. The leaders of the state, helped by Soviet councillors, chose a communist direction for Mongolia.

The republican form brought several reforms. The society could not have classes, so the nobility gave up its titles and privileges. The occidental medicine, the technology and education appeared in Mongolia and marked the end of old practices.

The 1930’s were crual. As in any communist state at that period, political purges seriously affected the society. The system was responsible of the death of thousands of innocent persons wrongly accused.

In 1939, Mongolia entered a major conflict against Japan along the eastern border of Mongolia (incident of Khakhingol). The fights between Japanese and Mongolian patrols that started in 1936 degenerated into in a majorborder confrontation. The Soviet army helped Mongolians, and together, they beat the Japanese forces and made the border secure.

In 1945, the Chinese government recognised independence of Mongolia. Mongolia became an ex officio member of the international community, and joined the United Nations in 1961.

Until the end of the 1980’s, Mongolia was a communist state flawlessly aligned on the Soviet Union. But the world was changing, and also was the case for Mongolia. In December 1989, the democrat opposition asked political reforms and organised important protests. In 1992, Mongolia adopted a new constitution that guarantees an open democracy and economic changes.

Mongol Empire

Genghis Khan started a determining war against Jurchen Dynasty of North China. His son Juchi conquered most part of Siberian territories, which secured the Northern borders of the country. The success of this war marked a turning point for Mongolians. Moreover, Genghis Khan settled a huge military campaign on the Eastern flank Mongolians defeated the Kara-Kidans, then get closer to Khwarezm, the present Uzbekistan and Afghanistan. The war against Khwazerm began in 1218. The Mongolian army crossed the Transoxiana that dominated the large Khwarezmian cities Urgench, Samarkand, Gherat, Merv, Bukhara, and many cities fell under the power of Genghis.

In 1221, Jebe and Subedey, two talented generals went towards West and lined the Caspian Sea. They get closer to Georgia and Armenia. Mongolians conquered these two Caucasian kingdoms and later crossed the Caucasian mountains to go on the Russian princes lands. In 1223, Jebe and Subedey encountered the Russians on the Kalka River and defeated them. So they decied to come back home, by the Volga, Bulgaria, and Ural.

Genghis Khan died in 1227. He left as a legacy a huge empire stretching from Caucasia to Korean peninsula, from China to Siberia. His son Ogodei took the title of Emperor in 1229. He carried on the war against Jurchens and little by little defeated them. In 1235, Mongolia took the last Jurchen fortress.

The Mongol Empire had a strict hierarchical structure. The Khan had the main powers. The supervisory board was the Great Assembly Khuralday, composed of generals and of aristocracy members. Genghis’ half brother Shihihutug was in charge of legal system. Genghis’ youngest dealt with the good working of the Great Law called Yasa.

In 1235, the Khuralday approved that Batu, Genghis Khan’s grandson, led the Western campaign with general Subedey. The army walked hundreds of miles and took Russia. From 1237 to 1240, the Mongolian militaries took many Russian big cities, such as Kiev, Vladimir, Ryazan,etc.

Mongol hordes

So Batu entered Europe attacking Hungary and Poland. In 1241, Mongols defeated Europeans in Liegnitz. In 1242, while Batu left to ruin Hungary, Moravia and Bohemia and reached the Adriatic Sea, an important message was sent to him: Ogodei was dead and the princes of Genghis Khan Dynasty had to come back to Mongolia. Batu left Europe, set up in the region of Volga, and founded the Golden Horde.

The results of this campaign led Mongolia on the international scene. European emissaries came until the Mongolian capital, Kharkhorin, in order to develop diplomatic relationship with the Khan.

The following Khan ruled only two years. Then Mönkh ruled on Mongol Empire. He was a perceptive politician who kept good relationship with Catholic Roman Pope and European kings. Mönkh started the Centre-West campaign. The army went until Iran and Syria. In 1258, Mongolians took Baghdad and set up a new territory.

The following Khan, Kubilai, led the Empire from 1260. During his reign, he conquered China and annexed Korea. He had the longest reign of Mongol Empire. Vietnam and Burma recognised domain of Mongolia. But Kubilai wanted to conquer Japan, and this was a failure : two fleets failed. In 1279, Kubilai transfered the capital from Kharkhorin to Beijing and founded Yuan Dynasty.

Around 1298, the Mongol Empire covered most part of the Eurasian continent. The empire united four territories: the Mongolian territory (Mongolia, China), the Golden Horde (Russia, Ural), Chagatay’s territory (Central Asia), and the Ilkhan Kingdom (Iran and Centre-West).

After Kubilai, the khans were not good leaders. They were not able to administrate such a large empire. Mongolians were a small minority on the territories conquered. One after another, revolts broke and provinces seceded. In 1312, the Golden Horde get separated from the centre. People took control of Chagatay’s territory in the 1340’s. Little by little, in Iran, Mongolians disappeared from the population.

The central government of the empire was also showing signs of decline. The Khan Tooon-Tömör and the other Mongolians left China in 1368 when Chinese mutinies started to extend. That was the end of the Mongol Empire.

Chronological history of Mongolia

First men appeared in Mongolia 500.000 years ago. This is a chronology retracing the main events occurred in Mongolia throughout its history.

Prehistoric period

500.000 BC: humans appear in Mongolia

4000 BC – 2000 BC: Bronze Age

2000 BC: breeding develops in Mongolia

700 BC – 500 BC: transition towards the beginning of Iron Age

400 BC: Chinese people starts to build the Great Wall to protect themselves from any incursion of the Xiongnus, main enemies of China

Xiongnus and Mongolian empires

209 BC: Modun Shanyui establishes the first Mongolian empire: Xiongnu Empire

1 – 100: Xiongnus are driven out of China

156: Xianbeis defeat the Xiongnus. Xianbei Empire becomes the most important empire of Central Asia.

317: Xianbeis conquer North China

360: end of the Xianbei Empire

386 – 533: period of the Wei Dynasty, established by the Tuoba in North China

745 – 840: period of the Uyghurs’ reign. They had defeated the Kokturks in 744.

840: Kyrgyz seize control on Uyghurs

916: beginning of the reign of Kitans, established beyond East Mongolia, Manchuria and North China

1122: Chinese defeat Kitan

The Great Mongol Empire

1162: Temujin’s birth

1189: Temujin becomes the famous Emperor Genghis Khan

1189 – 1205: Genghis Khan unifies the Mongolian nomadic tribes

1206: Genghis Khan proclaims himself leader of the Mongol Empire and begins to found his empire

1211: Genghis Khan attacks China

1215: Beijing is defeated and becomes Mongolian

1227: Genghis Khan’s death

1229: Genghis Khan’s third son, Ogodei Khan, is proclaimed second Khan

1231: Invasion of Korea

1235: Kharkhorin becomes the capital of the Mongol Empire. Marco Polo arrives in Kharkhorin right at that time.

1236 – 1240: period of offensives against Russia by Genghis Khan’s grandson, Bat Khan, and his Golden Horde

1241: Ogodei Khan’s death

1241 – 1242: Mongols invade Poland and Hungary

1246: Guyuk, Ogodei’s son, is proclaimed Khan and subdues Tibet. He dies this year.

1247: Mongolia has its first census

1251: Ogodei’s nephew, Mongke, is proclaimed Khan

1251: Mongols defeat Iran

1254: William of Rubruck arrives in Kharkhorin, Franciscan monk sent by the King Louis IX of France

1256: Mongols take Bagdad

1259: Mongke’s death

1260: Egyptian Mameluks defeat Mongols

1261: Genghis Khan’s grandson, Khubilai Khan, is proclaimed Grand Khan

1264: the capital is moved to Beijing

1271: Khubilai Khan changes the name of his empire into “Yuan”

1274 and 1281: Mongols try to invade Japan, without success

1275: Marco Polo reaches China

1276: Mongols annex Hangzhou, capital of the Song’s China

1279: Khubilai Khan achieves the conquest of the Chinese territory unifying China in his own empire. He founds the Yuan Dynasty overthrowing the Song Dynasty of South

1294: Khubilai Khan’s death

1299: Mongols invade Syria

1333: Togoontomor, last Khan of the Mongol Empire, seizes control on the Yuan Empire

1368: Mongols lose the Chinese territory. The Yuan Dynasty collapses and is replaced by the Ming Dynasty

 

Les khans de Mongolie

Fall of the Empire, domination of Manchus

1388: Chinese destroy Kharkhorin

1400 – 1454: civil war in Mongolia

1409 – 1449: Mongolia attacks China

1466: Dayan Khan unifies most Mongolian tribes

1480 – 1502: end of the control of Mongols on Russia. The Golden Horde falls.

1571: Mongols put an end to a 300-year war against Chinese

1578: Mongols convert to Tibetan Buddhism under Altan Khan’s reign. He gives the title of Dalai Lama to Sonam Gyatso.

1586: Buddhism becomes the official religion of Mongolia

1589: the construction of the first monastery of Mongolia begins: Erdene Zuu Monastery.

1641: Zanabazar is proclaimed leader of Buddhism in Mongolia

1641 – 1652: Russians defeat Buryats and win back the control of the area of Lake Baikal

1672: Mongolia invades Siberia and Russia

1691: Most Khalks Mongolians accept the Manchu sovereignty and are included in the Chinese Empire (Qing Dynasty, 1644-1911)

1728: the Sino-Russian treaty of Khyakhta redefines the Mongolian borders

1732: end of the independence of Mongolia with the defeat of the Dzungars

1750: China divides Mongolia into two parts: North becomes Outer Mongolia and South becomes Inner Mongolia

1783: Russians defeat the last reigning descendent of Genghis Khan

Independence, socialism and democracy

1 December 1911: Outer Mongolia becomes independent from China

28 December 1911: Mongolia puts in place an autonomous theocratic government

5 November 1912: a Sino-Russian treaty recognises China’s sovereignty on Mongolia

25 May 1915: Russia, China and Mongolia sign the treaty of Khyakhta that guarantees the independence of Mongolia

September 1918: Chinese troops occupy Outer Mongolia

March to June 1920: first steps towards the creation of the Mongolian People’s Party that forges links with the international communist movement

October 1920: White Russians invade Mongolia

13 March 1921: creation of the Mongolian People’s Party

July 1921: the Russian and Mongolian armies drive the White Russians out of Mongolia

11 July 1921: creation of the Provisional Popular Government of Mongolia

14 September 1921: Sukhbaatar, hero of the Revolution, announces the independence of Mongolia

5 November 1921: Soviets recognise the Provisional Popular Government

22 February 1923: Sukhbaatar’s death

31 May 1924: A Sino-Russian treaty recognises China’s sovereignty on Mongolia

August 1924: the Mongolian People’s Party becomes the Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party

25 November 1924: communists announce the Mongolian People’s Republic. The capital is named Ulaanbaatar (Ulan Bator in English), “red hero” referring to Sukhbaatar

December 1928: Khorloogiin Choibalsan becomes the political leader

1929 – 1932: confiscation of the feudal goods and abolition of the religious communities

27 November 1934: an agreement between Mongolia and Russia authorises the entry of Soviet troops in Mongolia

1937 – 1939: religious purges

1938: closure and destruction of Buddhist monasteries

1939: Khorloogiin Choibalsan becomes an uncontested leader

1939: the Russian and Mongolian troops defeat Japanese in East Mongolia

March – April 1940: Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal becomes secretary-general of the party

10 August 1945: Mongolia declares war on Japan

5 January 1946: China recognises the independence of Mongolia

27 February 1946: signature of the Treaty of Friendship and Mutual Assistance about economic and cultural cooperation between Mongolia and Soviet Union

26 January 1952: Choibalsan’s death

May 1952: Tsedenbal becomes Prime Minister

December 1952: signature of an agreement about economic and cultural cooperation with China

6 July 1960: new constitution

27 October 1961: Mongolia joins the United Nations

1962: condemnation of the “cult of personality” against Choibalsan

7 June 1962: Mongolia joins the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance

23 August 1984: Batmonkh becomes secretary-general of the party

12 December 1984: Dumaagiin Sodnom is elected Prime Minister

April 1986: signature of long-term commercial agreement with China

27 January 1987: first diplomatic relations with United States

7 March 1989: Soviets announce the withdrawal of the troops

1992: a new constitution is written and communists win another election

1996: against all odds, the democratic coalition defeats the communists in the legislative elections

2000: turnaround: the communists defeat the democrats in the following elections